What is semantics?
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Semantics can be broken down into two subfields: lexical semantics (how words mean) and compositional semantics (how words and syntax work together to make sentences mean).
Many words appear to refer to things and concepts. However, the nature of lexical meaning is more complicated than mere reference. Lexical meaning depends on relations among words as shown in the following examples:
Lexical fields: A set of words that belong together on some conceptual level.
Example 1: journal, magazine, newspaper, quarterly, periodical,
Example 2: dog, cat, hamster, goldfish, parakeet
Hyponymy: A set of hierarchical semantic relationships in which a hypernym is a more general term than a hyponym.
Example: dog (hypernym) - Pekingnese, mutt, terrier, Dalmation, Labrador (hyponyms)
Meronymy: A hierarchical semantic relationship which is categorized by the relation of whole to part.
Example: dog - paws, whiskers, snout, ears, tail
Synonymy: Words very close in meaning to another. They share a denotative (literal) meaning, but not a
connotative (context derived) meaning.
Example: cemetery/graveyard
Antonymy: Words that mean the opposite of each other. Antonyms can be gradable, nongradable, or converse.
Gradable antonyms represent values at two ends of a spectrum, with many values in between.
Example: A cat can be fat or thin. However, many cats are plump, chunky, pudgy, lean, slender or healthy.
Nongradable (or complementary) antonyms are absolutes at the opposite conceptual poles.
Example: single/married or dead/alive
Converse pairs of words are semantically reciprocal. The opposite of each word is implied in the
meaning of each word.
Example: parent/child or student/teacher
Homonymy: Words with different meanings that share either the same spelling (homographs) or the same
pronunciation (homophones).
Example: wind "moving air" and wind "curl, turn, wrap" (homographs)
Example: witch and which (homophones)
Lexical meaning is also partly determined by syntactic structures and influenced by human experience as well. Context also helps to determine a sentence's meaning. It guides a listener's interpretation.
Semantic Change
As speakers use words, changes in meaning can occur over time. These changes are often varied and unpredictable. However, general categories can be created for the direction of semantic change:
Generalization: When a word with a specific meaning changes to have a more general significance.
Example: ceiling "top of a room" or ceiling "upper limits of something-glass ceiling"
Specialization: When a word with a general meaning becomes more specific.
Example: wit - In Old English wit meant "intellectual ability." Today it means "clever speech."
Metaphorical Extension: When a word goes beyond its primary meaning and applies to a perceived image similar to what the word usually represents.
crane crane
Euphemism: A word or phrase meant to sound better than its literal alternative
Example: pass away for when people die
Dysphemism: Words and phrases meant to sound worse in some context than when used literally
Example: Stella is easygoing, but Nicolas is lax. Lax is a dysphemism for 'lacking stictness, rigor."
Pejoration: A term of neutral significance takes on a negative meaning.
Example: nigger- Originated as a loan word from Portuguese meaning 'black in color,' but took on
negative connotations associated with the supposed inferiority of African Americans.
Amelioration: When a word now means something better than its previous meaning.
Example: knight - this once meant boy servant and now indicates someone of fairly high social rank
Lexical meaning can have social and cultural significance. Our understanding of word meanings influences our political and cultural conversations. Is it politically correct to say?
Example: pass away for when people die
Dysphemism: Words and phrases meant to sound worse in some context than when used literally
Example: Stella is easygoing, but Nicolas is lax. Lax is a dysphemism for 'lacking stictness, rigor."
Pejoration: A term of neutral significance takes on a negative meaning.
Example: nigger- Originated as a loan word from Portuguese meaning 'black in color,' but took on
negative connotations associated with the supposed inferiority of African Americans.
Amelioration: When a word now means something better than its previous meaning.
Example: knight - this once meant boy servant and now indicates someone of fairly high social rank
Lexical meaning can have social and cultural significance. Our understanding of word meanings influences our political and cultural conversations. Is it politically correct to say?